Publications | Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems

dlg Drama, Ö., Badri-Spröwitz, A. Trunk Pitch Oscillations for Joint Load Redistribution in Humans and Humanoid Robots Proceedings International Conference on Humanoid Robots, Humanoids, September 2019 (conference) Accepted

Frontiers YouTube link (url) DOI [BibTex]

Series Elastic Behavior of Biarticular Muscle-Tendon Structure in a Robotic Leg

Ruppert, F., Badri-Spröwitz, A.

Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 64, pages: 13, 13, August 2019 (article)

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dlg Ruppert, F., Badri-Spröwitz, A. Series Elastic Behavior of Biarticular Muscle-Tendon Structure in a Robotic Leg Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 64, pages: 13, 13, August 2019 (article)

Frontiers YouTube link (url) DOI [BibTex]

The positive side of damping

Heim, S., Millard, M., Le Mouel, C., Sproewitz, A.

Proceedings of AMAM, The 9th International Symposium on Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines, August 2019 (conference) Accepted

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dlg Heim, S., Millard, M., Le Mouel, C., Sproewitz, A. The positive side of damping Proceedings of AMAM, The 9th International Symposium on Adaptive Motion of Animals and Machines, August 2019 (conference) Accepted

arXiv preprint arXiv:1806.08081 T-RO link (url) DOI Project Page [BibTex]

Beyond Basins of Attraction: Quantifying Robustness of Natural Dynamics

Steve Heim, , Spröwitz, A.

IEEE Transactions on Robotics (T-RO) , 35(4), pages: 939-952, August 2019 (article)

Abstract

Properly designing a system to exhibit favorable natural dynamics can greatly simplify designing or learning the control policy. However, it is still unclear what constitutes favorable natural dynamics and how to quantify its effect. Most studies of simple walking and running models have focused on the basins of attraction of passive limit cycles and the notion of self-stability. We instead emphasize the importance of stepping beyond basins of attraction. In this paper, we show an approach based on viability theory to quantify robust sets in state-action space. These sets are valid for the family of all robust control policies, which allows us to quantify the robustness inherent to the natural dynamics before designing the control policy or specifying a control objective. We illustrate our formulation using spring-mass models, simple low-dimensional models of running systems. We then show an example application by optimizing robustness of a simulated planar monoped, using a gradient-free optimization scheme. Both case studies result in a nonlinear effective stiffness providing more robustness.

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dlg Steve Heim, , Spröwitz, A. Beyond Basins of Attraction: Quantifying Robustness of Natural Dynamics IEEE Transactions on Robotics (T-RO) , 35(4), pages: 939-952, August 2019 (article)

arXiv preprint arXiv:1806.08081 T-RO link (url) DOI Project Page [BibTex]

Accurate Vision-based Manipulation through Contact Reasoning

Kloss, A., Bauza, M., Wu, J., Tenenbaum, J. B., Rodriguez, A., Bohg, J.

In International Conference on Robotics and Automation, May 2019 (inproceedings) Submitted

Abstract

Planning contact interactions is one of the core challenges of many robotic tasks. Optimizing contact locations while taking dynamics into account is computationally costly and in only partially observed environments, executing contact-based tasks often suffers from low accuracy. We present an approach that addresses these two challenges for the problem of vision-based manipulation. First, we propose to disentangle contact from motion optimization. Thereby, we improve planning efficiency by focusing computation on promising contact locations. Second, we use a hybrid approach for perception and state estimation that combines neural networks with a physically meaningful state representation. In simulation and real-world experiments on the task of planar pushing, we show that our method is more efficient and achieves a higher manipulation accuracy than previous vision-based approaches.

Video link (url) [BibTex]

am Kloss, A., Bauza, M., Wu, J., Tenenbaum, J. B., Rodriguez, A., Bohg, J. Accurate Vision-based Manipulation through Contact Reasoning In International Conference on Robotics and Automation, May 2019 (inproceedings) Submitted

Video link (url) [BibTex]

Learning Latent Space Dynamics for Tactile Servoing

Sutanto, G., Ratliff, N., Sundaralingam, B., Chebotar, Y., Su, Z., Handa, A., Fox, D.

In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) 2019, IEEE, International Conference on Robotics and Automation, May 2019 (inproceedings) Accepted

pdf video [BibTex]

am Sutanto, G., Ratliff, N., Sundaralingam, B., Chebotar, Y., Su, Z., Handa, A., Fox, D. Learning Latent Space Dynamics for Tactile Servoing In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA) 2019, IEEE, International Conference on Robotics and Automation, May 2019 (inproceedings) Accepted

pdf video [BibTex]

Quantifying the Robustness of Natural Dynamics: a Viability Approach

Heim, S., Sproewitz, A.

Proceedings of Dynamic Walking , Dynamic Walking , 2019 (conference) Accepted

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Submission DW2019 [BibTex]

dlg Heim, S., Sproewitz, A. Quantifying the Robustness of Natural Dynamics: a Viability Approach Proceedings of Dynamic Walking , Dynamic Walking , 2019 (conference) Accepted

Submission DW2019 [BibTex]

Automated Generation of Reactive Programs from Human Demonstration for Orchestration of Robot Behaviors

Berenz, V., Bjelic, A., Mainprice, J.

ArXiv, 2019 (article)

Abstract

Social robots or collaborative robots that have to interact with people in a reactive way are difficult to program. This difficulty stems from the different skills required by the programmer: to provide an engaging user experience the behavior must include a sense of aesthetics while robustly operating in a continuously changing environment. The Playful framework allows composing such dynamic behaviors using a basic set of action and perception primitives. Within this framework, a behavior is encoded as a list of declarative statements corresponding to high-level sensory-motor couplings. To facilitate non-expert users to program such behaviors, we propose a Learning from Demonstration (LfD) technique that maps motion capture of humans directly to a Playful script. The approach proceeds by identifying the sensory-motor couplings that are active at each step using the Viterbi path in a Hidden Markov Model (HMM). Given these activation patterns, binary classifiers called evaluations are trained to associate activations to sensory data. Modularity is increased by clustering the sensory-motor couplings, leading to a hierarchical tree structure. The novelty of the proposed approach is that the learned behavior is encoded not in terms of trajectories in a task space, but as couplings between sensory information and high-level motor actions. This provides advantages in terms of behavioral generalization and reactivity displayed by the robot.

Support Video link (url) [BibTex]

am Berenz, V., Bjelic, A., Mainprice, J. Automated Generation of Reactive Programs from Human Demonstration for Orchestration of Robot Behaviors ArXiv, 2019 (article)

Support Video link (url) [BibTex]

2002

Forward models in visuomotor control

Mehta, B., Schaal, S.

J Neurophysiol, 88(2):942-53, August 2002, clmc (article)

Abstract

In recent years, an increasing number of research projects investigated whether the central nervous system employs internal models in motor control. While inverse models in the control loop can be identified more readily in both motor behavior and the firing of single neurons, providing direct evidence for the existence of forward models is more complicated. In this paper, we will discuss such an identification of forward models in the context of the visuomotor control of an unstable dynamic system, the balancing of a pole on a finger. Pole balancing imposes stringent constraints on the biological controller, as it needs to cope with the large delays of visual information processing while keeping the pole at an unstable equilibrium. We hypothesize various model-based and non-model-based control schemes of how visuomotor control can be accomplished in this task, including Smith Predictors, predictors with Kalman filters, tapped-delay line control, and delay-uncompensated control. Behavioral experiments with human participants allow exclusion of most of the hypothesized control schemes. In the end, our data support the existence of a forward model in the sensory preprocessing loop of control. As an important part of our research, we will provide a discussion of when and how forward models can be identified and also the possible pitfalls in the search for forward models in control.

2002

am Mehta, B., Schaal, S. Forward models in visuomotor control J Neurophysiol, 88(2):942-53, August 2002, clmc (article)

Learning rhythmic movements by demonstration using nonlinear oscillators

Ijspeert, J. A., Nakanishi, J., Schaal, S.

In IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS 2002), pages: 958-963, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, Lausanne, Sept.30-Oct.4 2002, 2002, clmc (inproceedings)

Abstract

Locally weighted learning (LWL) is a class of statistical learning techniques that provides useful representations and training algorithms for learning about complex phenomena during autonomous adaptive control of robotic systems. This paper introduces several LWL algorithms that have been tested successfully in real-time learning of complex robot tasks. We discuss two major classes of LWL, memory-based LWL and purely incremental LWL that does not need to remember any data explicitly. In contrast to the traditional beliefs that LWL methods cannot work well in high-dimensional spaces, we provide new algorithms that have been tested in up to 50 dimensional learning problems. The applicability of our LWL algorithms is demonstrated in various robot learning examples, including the learning of devil-sticking, pole-balancing of a humanoid robot arm, and inverse-dynamics learning for a seven degree-of-freedom robot.

am Ijspeert, J. A., Nakanishi, J., Schaal, S. Learning rhythmic movements by demonstration using nonlinear oscillators In IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS 2002), pages: 958-963, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, Lausanne, Sept.30-Oct.4 2002, 2002, clmc (inproceedings)

Learning robot control

In The handbook of brain theory and neural networks, 2nd Edition, pages: 983-987, 2, (Editors: Arbib, M. A.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2002, clmc (inbook)

Abstract

This is a review article on learning control in robots.

am Schaal, S. Learning robot control In The handbook of brain theory and neural networks, 2nd Edition, pages: 983-987, 2, (Editors: Arbib, M. A.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2002, clmc (inbook)

Arm and hand movement control

In The handbook of brain theory and neural networks, 2nd Edition, pages: 110-113, 2, (Editors: Arbib, M. A.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2002, clmc (inbook)

Abstract

This is a review article on computational and biological research on arm and hand control.

am Schaal, S. Arm and hand movement control In The handbook of brain theory and neural networks, 2nd Edition, pages: 110-113, 2, (Editors: Arbib, M. A.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2002, clmc (inbook)

Scalable techniques from nonparameteric statistics for real-time robot learning

Schaal, S., Atkeson, C. G., Vijayakumar, S.

Applied Intelligence, 17(1):49-60, 2002, clmc (article)

Abstract

Locally weighted learning (LWL) is a class of techniques from nonparametric statistics that provides useful representations and training algorithms for learning about complex phenomena during autonomous adaptive control of robotic systems. This paper introduces several LWL algorithms that have been tested successfully in real-time learning of complex robot tasks. We discuss two major classes of LWL, memory-based LWL and purely incremental LWL that does not need to remember any data explicitly. In contrast to the traditional belief that LWL methods cannot work well in high-dimensional spaces, we provide new algorithms that have been tested on up to 90 dimensional learning problems. The applicability of our LWL algorithms is demonstrated in various robot learning examples, including the learning of devil-sticking, pole-balancing by a humanoid robot arm, and inverse-dynamics learning for a seven and a 30 degree-of-freedom robot. In all these examples, the application of our statistical neural networks techniques allowed either faster or more accurate acquisition of motor control than classical control engineering.

am Schaal, S., Atkeson, C. G., Vijayakumar, S. Scalable techniques from nonparameteric statistics for real-time robot learning Applied Intelligence, 17(1):49-60, 2002, clmc (article)

Movement imitation with nonlinear dynamical systems in humanoid robots

Ijspeert, J. A., Nakanishi, J., Schaal, S.

In International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA2002), Washinton, May 11-15 2002, 2002, clmc (inproceedings)

Abstract

am Ijspeert, J. A., Nakanishi, J., Schaal, S. Movement imitation with nonlinear dynamical systems in humanoid robots In International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA2002), Washinton, May 11-15 2002, 2002, clmc (inproceedings)

A locally weighted learning composite adaptive controller with structure adaptation

Nakanishi, J., Farrell, J. A., Schaal, S.

In IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS 2002), Lausanne, Sept.30-Oct.4 2002, 2002, clmc (inproceedings)

Abstract

This paper introduces a provably stable adaptive learning controller which employs nonlinear function approximation with automatic growth of the learning network according to the nonlinearities and the working domain of the control system. The unknown function in the dynamical system is approximated by piecewise linear models using a nonparametric regression technique. Local models are allocated as necessary and their parameters are optimized on-line. Inspired by composite adaptive control methods, the pro-posed learning adaptive control algorithm uses both the tracking error and the estimation error to up-date the parameters. We provide Lyapunov analyses that demonstrate the stability properties of the learning controller. Numerical simulations illustrate rapid convergence of the tracking error and the automatic structure adaptation capability of the function approximator. This paper introduces a provably stable adaptive learning controller which employs nonlinear function approximation with automatic growth of the learning network according to the nonlinearities and the working domain of the control system. The unknown function in the dynamical system is approximated by piecewise linear models using a nonparametric regression technique. Local models are allocated as necessary and their parameters are optimized on-line. Inspired by composite adaptive control methods, the pro-posed learning adaptive control algorithm uses both the tracking error and the estimation error to up-date the parameters. We provide Lyapunov analyses that demonstrate the stability properties of the learning controller. Numerical simulations illustrate rapid convergence of the tracking error and the automatic structure adaptation capability of the function approximator

am Nakanishi, J., Farrell, J. A., Schaal, S. A locally weighted learning composite adaptive controller with structure adaptation In IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS 2002), Lausanne, Sept.30-Oct.4 2002, 2002, clmc (inproceedings)

1999

Is imitation learning the route to humanoid robots?

Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3(6):233-242, 1999, clmc (article)

Abstract

This review will focus on two recent developments in artificial intelligence and neural computation: learning from imitation and the development of humanoid robots. It will be postulated that the study of imitation learning offers a promising route to gain new insights into mechanisms of perceptual motor control that could ultimately lead to the creation of autonomous humanoid robots. This hope is justified because imitation learning channels research efforts towards three important issues: efficient motor learning, the connection between action and perception, and modular motor control in form of movement primitives. In order to make these points, first, a brief review of imitation learning will be given from the view of psychology and neuroscience. In these fields, representations and functional connections between action and perception have been explored that contribute to the understanding of motor acts of other beings. The recent discovery that some areas in the primate brain are active during both movement perception and execution provided a first idea of the possible neural basis of imitation. Secondly, computational approaches to imitation learning will be described, initially from the perspective of traditional AI and robotics, and then with a focus on neural network models and statistical learning research. Parallels and differences between biological and computational approaches to imitation will be highlighted. The review will end with an overview of current projects that actually employ imitation learning for humanoid robots.

1999

am Schaal, S. Is imitation learning the route to humanoid robots? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3(6):233-242, 1999, clmc (article)

Nonparametric regression for learning nonlinear transformations

In Prerational Intelligence in Strategies, High-Level Processes and Collective Behavior, 2, pages: 595-621, (Editors: Ritter, H.;Cruse, H.;Dean, J.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999, clmc (inbook)

Abstract

Information processing in animals and artificial movement systems consists of a series of transformations that map sensory signals to intermediate representations, and finally to motor commands. Given the physical and neuroanatomical differences between individuals and the need for plasticity during development, it is highly likely that such transformations are learned rather than pre-programmed by evolution. Such self-organizing processes, capable of discovering nonlinear dependencies between different groups of signals, are one essential part of prerational intelligence. While neural network algorithms seem to be the natural choice when searching for solutions for learning transformations, this paper will take a more careful look at which types of neural networks are actually suited for the requirements of an autonomous learning system. The approach that we will pursue is guided by recent developments in learning theory that have linked neural network learning to well established statistical theories. In particular, this new statistical understanding has given rise to the development of neural network systems that are directly based on statistical methods. One family of such methods stems from nonparametric regression. This paper will compare nonparametric learning with the more widely used parametric counterparts in a non technical fashion, and investigate how these two families differ in their properties and their applicabilities. We will argue that nonparametric neural networks offer a set of characteristics that make them a very promising candidate for on-line learning in autonomous system.

am Schaal, S. Nonparametric regression for learning nonlinear transformations In Prerational Intelligence in Strategies, High-Level Processes and Collective Behavior, 2, pages: 595-621, (Editors: Ritter, H.;Cruse, H.;Dean, J.), Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999, clmc (inbook)

Segmentation of endpoint trajectories does not imply segmented control

Sternad, D., Schaal, D.

Experimental Brain Research, 124(1):118-136, 1999, clmc (article)

Abstract

While it is generally assumed that complex movements consist of a sequence of simpler units, the quest to define these units of action, or movement primitives, still remains an open question. In this context, two hypotheses of movement segmentation of endpoint trajectories in 3D human drawing movements are re-examined: (1) the stroke-based segmentation hypothesis based on the results that the proportionality coefficient of the 2/3 power law changes discontinuously with each new â??strokeâ?, and (2) the segmentation hypothesis inferred from the observation of piecewise planar endpoint trajectories of 3D drawing movements. In two experiments human subjects performed a set of elliptical and figure-8 patterns of different sizes and orientations using their whole arm in 3D. The kinematic characteristics of the endpoint trajectories and the seven joint angles of the arm were analyzed. While the endpoint trajectories produced similar segmentation features as reported in the literature, analyses of the joint angles show no obvious segmentation but rather continuous oscillatory patterns. By approximating the joint angle data of human subjects with sinusoidal trajectories, and by implementing this model on a 7-degree-of-freedom anthropomorphic robot arm, it is shown that such a continuous movement strategy can produce exactly the same features as observed by the above segmentation hypotheses. The origin of this apparent segmentation of endpoint trajectories is traced back to the nonlinear transformations of the forward kinematics of human arms. The presented results demonstrate that principles of discrete movement generation may not be reconciled with those of rhythmic movement as easily as has been previously suggested, while the generalization of nonlinear pattern generators to arm movements can offer an interesting alternative to approach the question of units of action.

am Sternad, D., Schaal, D. Segmentation of endpoint trajectories does not imply segmented control Experimental Brain Research, 124(1):118-136, 1999, clmc (article)

1997

Locally weighted learning

Atkeson, C. G., Moore, A. W., Schaal, S.

Artificial Intelligence Review, 11(1-5):11-73, 1997, clmc (article)

Abstract

This paper surveys locally weighted learning, a form of lazy learning and memory-based learning, and focuses on locally weighted linear regression. The survey discusses distance functions, smoothing parameters, weighting functions, local model structures, regularization of the estimates and bias, assessing predictions, handling noisy data and outliers, improving the quality of predictions by tuning fit parameters, interference between old and new data, implementing locally weighted learning efficiently, and applications of locally weighted learning. A companion paper surveys how locally weighted learning can be used in robot learning and control. Keywords: locally weighted regression, LOESS, LWR, lazy learning, memory-based learning, least commitment learning, distance functions, smoothing parameters, weighting functions, global tuning, local tuning, interference.

1997

am Atkeson, C. G., Moore, A. W., Schaal, S. Locally weighted learning Artificial Intelligence Review, 11(1-5):11-73, 1997, clmc (article)

Locally weighted learning for control

Atkeson, C. G., Moore, A. W., Schaal, S.

Artificial Intelligence Review, 11(1-5):75-113, 1997, clmc (article)

Abstract

Lazy learning methods provide useful representations and training algorithms for learning about complex phenomena during autonomous adaptive control of complex systems. This paper surveys ways in which locally weighted learning, a type of lazy learning, has been applied by us to control tasks. We explain various forms that control tasks can take, and how this affects the choice of learning paradigm. The discussion section explores the interesting impact that explicitly remembering all previous experiences has on the problem of learning to control. Keywords: locally weighted regression, LOESS, LWR, lazy learning, memory-based learning, least commitment learning, forward models, inverse models, linear quadratic regulation (LQR), shifting setpoint algorithm, dynamic programming.

am Atkeson, C. G., Moore, A. W., Schaal, S. Locally weighted learning for control Artificial Intelligence Review, 11(1-5):75-113, 1997, clmc (article)

Learning from demonstration

In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 9, pages: 1040-1046, (Editors: Mozer, M. C.;Jordan, M.;Petsche, T.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997, clmc (inproceedings)

Abstract

By now it is widely accepted that learning a task from scratch, i.e., without any prior knowledge, is a daunting undertaking. Humans, however, rarely attempt to learn from scratch. They extract initial biases as well as strategies how to approach a learning problem from instructions and/or demonstrations of other humans. For learning control, this paper investigates how learning from demonstration can be applied in the context of reinforcement learning. We consider priming the Q-function, the value function, the policy, and the model of the task dynamics as possible areas where demonstrations can speed up learning. In general nonlinear learning problems, only model-based reinforcement learning shows significant speed-up after a demonstration, while in the special case of linear quadratic regulator (LQR) problems, all methods profit from the demonstration. In an implementation of pole balancing on a complex anthropomorphic robot arm, we demonstrate that, when facing the complexities of real signal processing, model-based reinforcement learning offers the most robustness for LQR problems. Using the suggested methods, the robot learns pole balancing in just a single trial after a 30 second long demonstration of the human instructor.Â

am Schaal, S. Learning from demonstration In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 9, pages: 1040-1046, (Editors: Mozer, M. C.;Jordan, M.;Petsche, T.), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1997, clmc (inproceedings)

Robot learning from demonstration

Atkeson, C. G., Schaal, S.

In Machine Learning: Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference (ICML ’97), pages: 12-20, (Editors: Fisher Jr., D. H.), Morgan Kaufmann, Nashville, TN, July 8-12, 1997, 1997, clmc (inproceedings)

Abstract

The goal of robot learning from demonstration is to have a robot learn from watching a demonstration of the task to be performed. In our approach to learning from demonstration the robot learns a reward function from the demonstration and a task model from repeated attempts to perform the task. A policy is computed based on the learned reward function and task model. Lessons learned from an implementation on an anthropomorphic robot arm using a pendulum swing up task include 1) simply mimicking demonstrated motions is not adequate to perform this task, 2) a task planner can use a learned model and reward function to compute an appropriate policy, 3) this model-based planning process supports rapid learning, 4) both parametric and nonparametric models can be learned and used, and 5) incorporating a task level direct learning component, which is non-model-based, in addition to the model-based planner, is useful in compensating for structural modeling errors and slow model learning.Â

am Atkeson, C. G., Schaal, S. Robot learning from demonstration In Machine Learning: Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference (ICML ’97), pages: 12-20, (Editors: Fisher Jr., D. H.), Morgan Kaufmann, Nashville, TN, July 8-12, 1997, 1997, clmc (inproceedings)

Local dimensionality reduction for locally weighted learning

Vijayakumar, S., Schaal, S.

In International Conference on Computational Intelligence in Robotics and Automation, pages: 220-225, Monteray, CA, July10-11, 1997, 1997, clmc (inproceedings)

Abstract

Incremental learning of sensorimotor transformations in high dimensional spaces is one of the basic prerequisites for the success of autonomous robot devices as well as biological movement systems. So far, due to sparsity of data in high dimensional spaces, learning in such settings requires a significant amount of prior knowledge about the learning task, usually provided by a human expert. In this paper we suggest a partial revision of the view. Based on empirical studies, it can been observed that, despite being globally high dimensional and sparse, data distributions from physical movement systems are locally low dimensional and dense. Under this assumption, we derive a learning algorithm, Locally Adaptive Subspace Regression, that exploits this property by combining a local dimensionality reduction as a preprocessing step with a nonparametric learning technique, locally weighted regression. The usefulness of the algorithm and the validity of its assumptions are illustrated for a synthetic data set and data of the inverse dynamics of an actual 7 degree-of-freedom anthropomorphic robot arm.

am Vijayakumar, S., Schaal, S. Local dimensionality reduction for locally weighted learning In International Conference on Computational Intelligence in Robotics and Automation, pages: 220-225, Monteray, CA, July10-11, 1997, 1997, clmc (inproceedings)

Learning tasks from a single demonstration

Atkeson, C. G., Schaal, S.

In IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA97), 2, pages: 1706-1712, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, Albuquerque, NM, 20-25 April, 1997, clmc (inproceedings)

Abstract

Learning a complex dynamic robot manoeuvre from a single human demonstration is difficult. This paper explores an approach to learning from demonstration based on learning an optimization criterion from the demonstration and a task model from repeated attempts to perform the task, and using the learned criterion and model to compute an appropriate robot movement. A preliminary version of the approach has been implemented on an anthropomorphic robot arm using a pendulum swing up task as an example

am Atkeson, C. G., Schaal, S. Learning tasks from a single demonstration In IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA97), 2, pages: 1706-1712, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, Albuquerque, NM, 20-25 April, 1997, clmc (inproceedings)

1993

Learning passive motor control strategies with genetic algorithms

Schaal, S., Sternad, D.

In 1992 Lectures in complex systems, pages: 913-918, (Editors: Nadel, L.;Stein, D.), Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, 1993, clmc (inbook)

Abstract

This study investigates learning passive motor control strategies. Passive control is understood as control without active error correction; the movement is stabilized by particular properties of the controlling dynamics. We analyze the task of juggling a ball on a racket. An approximation to the optimal solution of the task is derived by means of optimization theory. In order to model the learning process, the problem is coded for a genetic algorithm in representations without sensory or with sensory information. For all representations the genetic algorithm is able to find passive control strategies, but learning speed and the quality of the outcome are significantly different. A comparison with data from human subjects shows that humans seem to apply yet different movement strategies to the ones proposed. For the feedback representation some implications arise for learning from demonstration.

1993

am Schaal, S., Sternad, D. Learning passive motor control strategies with genetic algorithms In 1992 Lectures in complex systems, pages: 913-918, (Editors: Nadel, L.;Stein, D.), Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, 1993, clmc (inbook)

A genetic algorithm for evolution from an ecological perspective

Sternad, D., Schaal, S.

In 1992 Lectures in Complex Systems, pages: 223-231, (Editors: Nadel, L.;Stein, D.), Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, 1993, clmc (inbook)

Abstract

In the population model presented, an evolutionary dynamic is explored which is based on the operator characteristics of genetic algorithms. An essential modification in the genetic algorithms is the inclusion of a constraint in the mixing of the gene pool. The pairing for the crossover is governed by a selection principle based on a complementarity criterion derived from the theoretical tenet of perception-action (P-A) mutuality of ecological psychology. According to Swenson and Turvey [37] P-A mutuality underlies evolution and is an integral part of its thermodynamics. The present simulation tested the contribution of P-A-cycles in evolutionary dynamics. A numerical experiment compares the population's evolution with and without this intentional component. The effect is measured in the difference of the rate of energy dissipation, as well as in three operationalized aspects of complexity. The results support the predicted increase in the rate of energy dissipation, paralleled by an increase in the average heterogeneity of the population. Furthermore, the spatio-temporal evolution of the system is tested for the characteristic power-law relations of a nonlinear system poised in a critical state. The frequency distribution of consecutive increases in population size shows a significantly different exponent in functional relationship.

am Sternad, D., Schaal, S. A genetic algorithm for evolution from an ecological perspective In 1992 Lectures in Complex Systems, pages: 223-231, (Editors: Nadel, L.;Stein, D.), Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, 1993, clmc (inbook)

Roles for memory-based learning in robotics

Atkeson, C. G., Schaal, S.

In Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Robotics Research, pages: 503-521, Hidden Valley, PA, 1993, clmc (inproceedings)

am Atkeson, C. G., Schaal, S. Roles for memory-based learning in robotics In Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Robotics Research, pages: 503-521, Hidden Valley, PA, 1993, clmc (inproceedings)

Design concurrent calculation: A CAD- and data-integrated approach

Schaal, S., Ehrlenspiel, K.

Journal of Engineering Design, 4, pages: 71-85, 1993, clmc (article)

Abstract

Besides functional regards, product design demands increasingly more for further reaching considerations. Quality alone cannot suffice anymore to compete in the market; design for manufacturability, for assembly, for recycling, etc., are well-known keywords. Those can largely be reduced to the necessity of design for costs. This paper focuses on a CAD-based approach to design concurrent calculation. It will discuss how, in the meantime well-established, tools like feature technology, knowledge-based systems, and relational databases can be blended into one coherent concept to achieve an entirely CAD- and data-integrated cost information tool. This system is able to extract data from the CAD-system, combine it with data about the company specific manufacturing environment, and subsequently autonomously evaluate manufacturability aspects and costs of the given CAD-model. Within minutes the designer gets quantitative in-formation about the major cost sources of his/her design. Additionally, some alternative methods for approximating manu-facturing times from empirical data, namely neural networks and local weighted regression, are introduced.

am Schaal, S., Ehrlenspiel, K. Design concurrent calculation: A CAD- and data-integrated approach Journal of Engineering Design, 4, pages: 71-85, 1993, clmc (article)

Open loop stable control strategies for robot juggling

Schaal, S., Atkeson, C. G.

In IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 3, pages: 913-918, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, Georgia, Atlanta, May 2-6, 1993, clmc (inproceedings)

Abstract

In a series of case studies out of the field of dynamic manipulation (Mason, 1992), different principles for open loop stable control are introduced and analyzed. This investigation may provide some insight into how open loop control can serve as a useful foundation for closed loop control and, particularly, what to focus on in learning control.Â

am Schaal, S., Atkeson, C. G. Open loop stable control strategies for robot juggling In IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 3, pages: 913-918, Piscataway, NJ: IEEE, Georgia, Atlanta, May 2-6, 1993, clmc (inproceedings)